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ELEMENTS 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



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PUBLISHED BY 

HERMON E. HI3BARD 

BOSTON, MASS. 
U. S. A. 




Pass "T9> ew\ \ 

Book._ i-\_£SL 



Copyright}! 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTS 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PUBLISHED BY 

HERMON E. HIBBARI) 

BOSTON, MASS. 

U.S.A. 






RY of OON©RESS 
frwo Oopies deceived 

SEP, 1 1905 
/ ^ S3 c e 

COPY a. 




Copyrighted, 1905, 

BY 

HERMON E. HIBBARD., 
Boston, Mass. 



PKEFACE. 



The aim in this brief treatise is to make grammar an intellectual 
exercise, to show, by the construction and analysis of easy sentence.*, 
the power of the several classes of words in modifying the sense, to 
show that the sense is not contained in one mass, but that one word 
suggests the object of which we are speaking, another describes the 
object, another asserts something of the object, and another qualifies 
the assertion in respect to time, place, and manner. The sentences 
instanced are, it is true, very simple, and the sense very obvious. They - 
are intended for illustrations and are better even for adults than 
sentences where the relations are less obvious. 

The best illustration of a principle is in its simplest and most trans- 
parent form, a fact not always recognized by teachers. The object is to 
furnish guidance in a plain and simple form, and trust to the judgment 
of the teacher to carry out and exemplify more fully principles but 
partially developed in the following pages. 

. HERMON E. HIBBARD. 

Boston, June, 1905. 



THE 

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



What is the use of language ? To express 
thought. 

How is thought expressed in words? By com- 
bining them. 

How many words are necessary to express an 
idea or thought ? There must be two, at least. 

If I say, " John ivalks," do I express an idea? 
Yes. 

What do words joined so as to express an idea 
form ? A sentence. 

How many words, then, are necessary to make a 
sentence? Two. 

What are the principal parts of a sentence? 
There must be one word which is the name of a 
person or thing ; and another which tells what iV 
said or asserted of that person or thing. 



John walks. 

What word is here used as the name of a person 
or thin£? " John." 



What word is used to tell what is said or asserted 
of it? " Walks." 

Is this a sentence? Yes. 

Why ? Because it expresses an idea. 



Nouns and Verbs. 

Boys study. 

What word is the name of the persons of whom 
we are speaking? " Boys." 

What word tells what is said or asserted of the 
boys? "Study." 

What are words used as names called ? Nouns. 

What word is a noun in this sentence? u Boys." 
Why? Because it is used as a name. 

What are names of particular persons and places 
called? Proper nouns. 

What are general names called? Common nouns. 

What are words used to assert or affirm something 
of a noun called? Verbs. 

What word is a verb in the sentence above? 
46 Study." 

Why ? Because it is used to affirm something of 
boys. 

Children play. 

What word is used as a name in this sentence ? 
" Children." 

What is it called? A noun. 



Why? Because it is used as a name. 

What word is used to assert or affirm something 
about children ? 1 1 Play." 

What is it called? A verb. 

Why ? Because it is used to affirm something of 
children 

Charles studies his lessons at school. 

What words are used as names in this sentence? 
" Charles/' " lessons," and " school." 

What, then, are they called ? Nouns. Why ? 

What word is used to assert or affirm something 
of Charles? " Studies." 

What is it called ? A verb. Why ? 



Examples. 

1. Words are like arrows. 

2. The teacher closed the windows and doors. 

3. Follow some pursuit with zeal. 

4. Father bought my sled, but the knife was a present from 
George. 

5. Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and forget not the 
kindness of thy mother. 

, 6. Reason, eloquence, and art prove dangerous in the hands of 
bad men. 

7. Truth and error, virtue and vice, are things of an immutable 
nature. 

1, Charles to Boston. 2. Anna —from school. 

3. An honest man the noblest work of God. 

4, A good boy his parents. 5. Men God. 

6. Charles his book. 



1. are useful animals. 2. — has studied the lesson. 

3. gave me a book. 4. should obey their parents. 

5. will soon wither. 6. Does confer happiness ? 



Adjectives. 

Good boys study. 

What is the word " good" used for in this sen- 
tence? To describe " boys." 

In what respect does it describe them? It tells 
their character. 

If I say " white men," in what respect does 
u white " describe the men? In regard to color. 

In what respect would " young" describe men? 
In regard to age. 

1 < Tall ? " With regard to height. 

" Large? " In regard to size. 

What are the words called that describe nouns? 
Adjectives. 

Large streams flow from little fountains. 

What word describes " streams " in this sentence? 
"Large." 

In what respect? In respect to size. 

What, then, is " large " called? An adjective. 

Why? Because it describes a noun. \ 

What other adjective is there in this example? 
" Little." 



Why? Because it describes the 'noun " foun- 
tains." 

Statement. —Adjectives describe nouns. 

Remark. — The three adjectives, a, an, and the, are called 
Articles. 

1 . Two horses ~\ 

2. Tivo large horses . . V ran. 

3. TW /a?7/e black horses ) 

In the first sentence, what word is used as a 
name? 

What is it called ? 

What word is used to affirm or assert something 
about the horses ?■ 

What is it called ? 

What word describes horses? " Two." 

In what respect does it describe them ? As to 
number; it tells how many horses ran. 

Then what is it called? An adjective. 

Why? Because it describes a noun. 

In the second sentence, what word describes the 
noun horses as to size ? 

Then what is it called? Why? 

In the third sentence, what word is used to de- 
scribe the horses as to color? 

What is it called ? Why? 

Examples. 

1. Solomon is called a wise man. 2. Industrious men work. 
3. George had four sweet apples. 4. He lived twenty years. 



10 



5. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

6. Swift instinct leaps ; slow reason feebly climbs. 

7. The gay summer droops into pallid autumn. 

8. Ambition scoffs at useful toil and homely joys. 

9. There are vacant seats in our earthly homes. 

10. Lonely and lovely is the silent glen. 

11. His lazy limbs in listless languor lay. 

12. Soft winds murmured with low and pensive sound. 



• horses. 



trees, 
ideas. 



birds. 



- dogs, 
houses. 



children. 
- feelings. 



Great - 
Young — 
cellent — 



Small ■ 
New — 
Black — 



Merciful 



White 



Seven • 



Tall — 
Sour 



Sublime ■ 
, Cold- 



. Ex- 
Good 



Adverbs. 

The horses then ran swiftly away. 

What is the word u swiftly " used for? To tell 
how the horses ran. 

What is " away " used for? To tell where they 
ran. 

What is "then" used for? To tell ivhen they 
ran . 

What are u swiftly, " "then," and u away" 
called? Adverbs. 

What, then, are adverbs used for? To describe 
verbs. \ 

In what respect do they describe verbs? They 
tell how, tvhen or where an action is performed. 



11 

Very good boys study faithfully. 

In this sentence, what word describes "boys"? 
Good. 

What, then, is the word " good " ? An adjective. 

What is " very'' used for? To increase the force 
of the adjective 4i good." 

What part of speech is " very " ? An adverb. 

Some boys study less faithfully. 

What part of speech is " faithfully"? An adverb. 

Why? Because it describes or qualifies the verb 
u study." 

What is the use of the word " less " ? 

To diminish or lessen the force of the adverb 
" faithfully." 

What is " less " called ? An adverb. 

What, then, may an adverb be used for? It may 
be used with a verb to tell how, ivhen, or where an 
action is performed ; or with an adjective or adverb 
to increase or lessen its force. 

Statement. — Adverbs describe or qualify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. 

They have always labored most successfully. 
What is the word u successfully" used for? To 
tell how they have labored. 

What part of speech is it? An adverb. 



12 



What word does it describe or qualify ? The verb 
" labored." 

What is the word " most " used for? To increase 
the force of the word " successfully." 

What part of speech is used to increase or lessen 
the force of an adverb? An adverb. 

What part of speech, then, is " most " ? 

An adverb. Why? 

What is the word " always" used for? To tell 
when they labored. 

What part of speech is it ? Why ? 

What, then, do adverbs qualify? 



Examples. 

1. Boys sometimes act rather foolishly. 

2. We never shall submit. 

3. He studied so diligently that he will most certainly gain the 
prize. 

4. I have seen him there lately. 

5. When, where, and how he did it, he best can tell. 

6. Mountain and valley are equally agreeable. 

7. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 

1. Time flies . 2. Charles studies diligently. 

3. Charles studies very . 4. The horse ran fa9t. 

5. George applied himself most . 

6. George applied himself faithfully. 

7. Anna came then we expected. 8. They say . 






13 



Prepositions. 

Wealthy men should give liberally. 
Men of wealth should give liberally. 

Is there any difference in the meaning of these 
sentences? No. 

How are the men described in the first sentence? 
By the adjective " wealthy." 

How are they described in the second? By the 
phrase " of wealth." 

What is the word " wealth " ? A noun. 

Does it convey an idea to say, "Men — wealth 
should give"? No. 

What word must be placed before "wealth" to 
connect it with "men"? "Of." 

What is the word " of " called ? A preposition. 

Why? Because it is placed before a noun to 
connect it with another word. 

Men of wealth should give liberally. 
Men of ivealth should give with liberality. 

Do these sentences convey the same meaning? 
Yes. 

What word tells how they should give, in the first 
sentence? The adverb " liberally." 

What tells how they should give, in the second 
sentence? The phrase " with liberality." 

Would it convey an idea to say, Men of wealth 
should give liberality ? No. 



14 



What word must be placed before " liberality" to 
connect it with the verb 4< give "? " With." 

What, then, is " with " called? A preposition. 

Why? Because it is placed before a noun to 
connect it with another word. 

What, then, is a preposition? A word placed 
before a noun to connect it with some other word. 

Statement. — Prepositions connect words. 

He lately came from college. 

What noun in this sentence? u College." 
What word connects it with the verb " came"? 
u From." 

What part of speech is u from " ? Why? 
What may prepositions connect? 









TABLE OF PREPOSITIONS. 



about, 


around, 


between, ■ 


from, 


towards, 


above, 


at, 


betwixt, 


in, 


under, 


across, 


athwart, 


beyond, 


into, 


underneath, 


after, 


before, 


by, 


of, 


unto, 


against, 


behind, 


concerning, 


on, 


up, 


amid, 


below, 


down, 


over, 


upon, 


amidst, 


beneath, 


during, 


since, 


with, 


among, 


beside, 


except, 


through, 


within, 


amongst, 


besides, 


for, 


to, 


without. 



Examples. 

1. John has returned to the city. 

2. You may coast on my new sled. 

3. Take truth for thy creed, and God for thy Guide. 



15 



4. Speak gently to the little child. 

5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

6. Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and forget not the 
kindness of thy mother. 

7. Can you be misled by such arguments ? 

1. George has gone Indiana. 

2. Louis Napoleon usurped the throne France. 

3. Anna rode home ^— a carriage. 

4. Charles was sitting a chair. 

5. youth we sometimes trifle health. 

6. The blue waves curl — the gale. 

7. I am monarch all I survey. 

8. He leadeth me the still waters. He maketh me to lie 

down - — — green pastures. 



Conjunctions. 

John runs. William walks. 

How many assertions are here made ? Two. 

Does " John runs " make complete sense? Yes. 

Does "William walks" make complete sense? 
Yes. 

If you wish to make these two assertions in the 
same sentence, what word must you supply? 
"And." 

What is " and " used -for? To connect the sen- 
tences. 

What are words called which connect sentences? 
Conjunctions. 

What, then, is " and"? A conjunction. 

Why? Because it connects two sentences* 



16 

John went to Boston. James went to Boston. 

How many assertions are here made? Two. 

What word may be supplied to connect these 
sentences? "And." 

What is " and " ? A conjunction. 

Why? Because it connects sentences. 

What parts of each sentence are alike? " Went 
to Boston." 

How, then, can the same assertions be made in a 
shorter way? " John and James went to Boston." 

What, then, is " and " used for in this sentence? 
To connect the sentences and shorten the expression. 

How is the expression shortened by using the 
conjunction? 

John went to Boston. John returned. 

What word must be supplied to put these two 
assertions in one sentence? " And." 

What part of the sentence may be omitted when 
" and" is supplied? " John " before « returned." 

Why? Because it is the same in both sentences. 

John will go. James will go. 

What word must be supplied to connect these 
sentences, and assert that only one of the persons 
named will go? " Or." 

Is it now asserted that John will go ? $o. 

Is it asserted that James will go? No. 

Is it asserted that one or the other will go ? Yes. 



17 



Does it tell which ? No. 

What words are alike in each sentence? 4i Will 

How may the sentences be written when con- 
nected by " or "? u John or James will go." 
What part of speech is " or "? A conjunction. 

John will be pleased (if) William returns. 

What word is here used to connect the sentences ? 
"If." 

Can the expression be shortened if the sentences 
are connected ? No. 

Why? Because no part of one sentence is like 
the other. 

What part of speech is " if"? A conjunction. 

Why? Because it connects sentences. 

Statement. — Conjunctions connect sentences, 
and save the repetition of what is alike in each. 

TABLE OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

although, but, neither, than, unless, 

and, either, nor, that, wherefore, 

as, for, notwithstanding, then, jet. 

because, if, or, therefore, 

both, lest, since, though, 

George will succeed, because he is diligent. 
Is it asserted of George that he will succeed? 
Yes. 



18 



Is it asserted of him that he is diligent? Yes. 
What word connects these two assertions ? ' c Be- 
cause." 

What, then, is " because "? A conjunction. 
Why? Because it connects sentences. 
Does it shorten the expression? 

r 
Charles might have been a useful and, happy man. 

What is the conjunction in this example? "And." 

What two sentences does it connect? " Charles 
might have been a happy man," with " Charles 
might have been a useful man." 

What words are alike in these two assertions, and 
consequently need not be repeated? "Charles 
might have been a man." 

What word must be used to save the repetition? 
"And." 

What part of speech is it ? 

Why? 



1. I shall be satisfied you leave it behind. 

2. I saw the boy, called him to me. 

3. George Charles will do the errand. 

4. The boy loved play, he could not work. 



Examples. 

1. Some rivers are wide and deep. 

2. Charles is here, but Anna is not. 

3. George looked for his ball, but he could not find it. 

4. The horse ran with a chaise, and broke it. 

5. Henry might learn, if he would study. 

6. The boys will come, though they may be late. 






19 



5. Steam serves man, also destroys him. ' 

6. The horse chaise will be. mine. 

7. John James will catch harness the horse. 

8. The bor fell into the water, was drowned. 



Pronouns. 



The gentleman bought a book, and gave the book io 
William. 

How may this sentence be changed so as not to 
repeat the word " book"? By using the word " it" 
instead of "book ; " thus : " The gentleman bought 
a book and gave it to William." 

What part of speech is " book "? A noun. 

What w r ord is here used in its place? " It." 

What is a word called which is used instead of a 
noun? A pronoun. 

What part of speech is the word tc it " ? A pro- 
noun. 

Why ? Because it is used instead of a noun. 

Peter learns Peter's lessons if the lessons are not too 
difficult for Peter. 

How may this sentence be changed so as to pre- 
vent repetition? "Peter learns his lessons if they 
are not too difficult for him." 

What words are pronouns in this sentence? 
" His," "they," and " him." 

What noun is " his " used for? " Peter's." 



20 



What noun is " they" used for? " Lessons." 
What noun is " him " used for? t4 Peter." 
What, then, is a pronoun? A word used instead 
of a noun. 

i~ saw the man who sold a horse to you. 

What is u I " used for? Instead of the name of 
the speaker. 

What is "you" used for? Instead of the name 
of the person spoken to. 

What part of speech would these names be? 
Nouns. 

What part of speech, then, are " I " and u you " ? 
Pronouns. 

What is the word u who " used for? Instead of 
the noun " man." 

What, then, is " who " called? A pronoun. 

Why? Because it is used instead of a noun. 



Anna found my pencil, and put it on her desk. 

What noun is "my" used to represent? The 
name of the speaker. 

What noun is "it" used to represent? t; Pen- 
cil." 

What noun is "her" used to represent? 
''Anna." \ 

What are words used instead of nouns called? 
Pronouns. 



21 



What, then, are " my," " it," and " her " called? 
Pronouns. 

Examples. 

1. I thank thee for the word ; it nerves my arm. 

2. I will use you for my mirth. 

3. "Weigh well thy words before thou givest them breath. 

4. Here is your knife which I borrowed. 

5. Before I gave the thongs to you, they were mine ; after I 
handed them to you, they were yours. 



Interjections. 

Alas! the remedy came too late. 

What is asserted in this sentence? That "the 
remedy came too late." 

Is the word " alas" necessary to make the asser- 
tion ? No. 

Do you understand the speaker to regret that the 
remedy came too late? Yes. 

What word conveys that idea to you? " Alas." 

Does it assert that the speaker regrets it ? No. 

Does it imply it ? Yes. 

-What, then, is " alas" used for? To imply the 
emotion of regret. 

What are words used to imply emotion or feeling 
called? Interjections. 

What is i4 alas"? An interjection. 

Why? Because it implies emotion, and is not 
connected with the sentence. 



22 

TABLE OF INTERJECTIONS. 



adieu, 


bravo, 


halloo, 


ho, 


poh, 


ah, 


fie, 


hark, 


hurrah, 


pshaw, 


aha, 


ha, 


bey, 


hush, 


pugh, 


alack, 


ha, ha, ha, 


heyday, 


huzzah, 


well- a- day, 


alas, 


hail, 


hist, 


lo, 


what. 



Examples. 

1. Alas ! why need you be so rough ? 

2. Ah ! it is Pythias himself. 

3. Hush! hush! thou vain dreamer. 

4. Well ! what can I do for thee ? 

5. O ! I shall drown, I shall drown ! 



Parts of Speech. 

We have now seen that words may be reduced to 
classes, according to the purpose for which they are 
used ; that 

Words used as names are nouns. 

Words used to assert are verbs. 

Words used to describe nouns are adjectives. 

Words used to tell hoiv, when, or where an action 
is performed are adverbs. 

Words used before nouns and pronouns to connect 
them ivith some other word are prepositions. 

Words used to connect sentences, and prevent the 
repetition of what is the same in each are conjunc- 
tions. 

Words used to imply emotion or feeling without 
asserting it are interjections. 



23 



Words used instead of nouns are pronouns. 
These classes of words are called parts of speech, 
and include all the words in the language. 
What are nouns? What are verbs? 
What are adjectives? What are adverbs? 
What are prepositions? 
What are conjunctions ? 
What are interjections? 
What are pronouns ? 
What are these classes of words called? 

Examples. 

1. The horse ran with the carriage and broke it. 

2. Charles looked for the book. 

3. George recited his lessons well. 

4. I was fond of sport when I was young. 

5. I informed Charles of the arrival, and he was very glad. 

6. John remains in the city, and William returns to the country. 

7. The rivers are wide and deep. 

8. Father bought this sled, but that knife was a present from 
my uncle. 

9. Ha ! they please me now. 

10. William gave me the book, and I now cheerfully give it to 
you. 

A noun's the name of anything; 
As, school or garden, hoop or swing. 

Adjectives tell the kind of noun ; 
As, great, small, pretty, white, or brown. 
Three of these words we often see 
Called articles —a, an, and the. 

Instead of nouns the pronouns stand ; 
John's head, his face, my arm, your hand. 



24 

Verbs tell of something being done ; 
As, read, write, spell, sing, jump, or run. 

How things are done the adverbs tell ; 

As, s/ouly, quickly, ill, or well. 
They also tell us where and when ; 
As, here, and there, and now, and then. 

A preposition stands before 

A noun ; as, in, or through, a door. 

Conjunctions sentences unite ; 
As kittens scratch and puppies bite. 

The interjection shows surprise ; 
As, O, how pretty ! Ah, how wise ! 



Person of Nouns. 

A noun may be the name of the person speaking, 
spoken to, or spoken of. 

If I say, " William, bring the book to me, your 
teacher," what noun is the name of the person 
speaking ? c ' Teacher." 

What noun is the name of the person spoken to? 
" William." 

What noun is the name of the thing spoken of ? 
"Book." 

When a noun is the name of the person speaking, 
of what person is it? Of the first person. v 

What noun is of the first person in this example ? 
"Teacher." 



25 



Why? Because it is the name of 'the speaker. 

When a noun is the name of the person sjioken to, 
of what person is it? Of the second person. 

What noun' is of the second person in this exam- 
ple? "William*" 

Why? Because it is the name of the person 
spoken to. 

When a noun is the name of the person or thing 
spoken of, of what person is it? Third person. 

What noun in this example is of the third person ? 
" Book." 

Why? Because it is the name of the thing spoken 
of. 

Examples. 

1. Sir, I, your brother, should not plead in vain. 

2. Anna, you may recite }'Our lesson. 

3. Virtue is its own reward. 

4. Thou, William, still art young, and dost not see the danger. 

5. Honesty is the best policy. 

6. Peace scatters blessings from her dewy wings. 



Number. 

- A noun may be the name of one person or thing, 
or more than one. 

If I say, " tree," do I mean one tree, or more than 
one? One tree. 

What word would express more than one? 
11 Trees." 

Does " child " mean one, at more than one? 



26 



What word must be used to express more than 
one? " Children." 

When a word means only one person or thing, of 
what number is it? Singular number. 

When a word means more than one, of what num- 
ber is it? Plural number. 

What is the plural form of the following nouns : 
house, horse, ship, boat, river, school? 

What is the singular form of the following nouns : 
benches, seats, boxes, windoivs, doors? 

What must be added to the word "horse" to 
make it plural? " s." 

What must be added to u box" to make it plural? 
" es." 

How is the plural number commonly formed ? By 
adding u s" or " es " to the singular. 

What is the plural of " child"? 

How is it formed? By adding " ren " to the sin- 
gular. 

How is the plural of u man " formed? By chang- 
ing "a" to "e." 

Spell the plural of goose, fool, foot, ox, woman, 
mouse. 

What is the plural of " lady " ? " Ladies." 

How is the plural formed? By changing u y" 
into " ies." 

Is there a vowel immediately before the " y " in 
"lady"? No. v 

Then, if a noun ends in u y" without a vowel 
immediately before it, how is the plural formed? 






2i 



Spell the plural of the following words : fly, body, 
glory, story, possibility, navy, victory, fairy, beauty, 
cherry, duty, lady. 

What letter was removed from each? 

What letters were added to each ? 

Why? Because " y " was not immediately pre- 
ceded by a vowel. 

What is the plural of " key "? " Keys," 

How is it formed ? By adding " s." 

Is the "y" preceded by a vowel? Yes, by the 
vowel " e." 

What, then, is added to form the plural when 
final u y " is directly preceded by a vowel? " s." 

Spell the plural of the following words : turkey, 
day, monkey, toy, ray, boy, convoy, ivay, valley, 
delay. 

What is the plural of " loaf "? " Loaves." 

What is the plural of u knife " ? " Knives." 

Into what is "f" or "fe" in these examples 
changed? Into " ves." 

Spell the plural of the following words : life, wife, 
sheaf, leaf, wharf 

What is the plural of " muff"? " Muffs." 
' Staff h&s staves for its plural. All others in " ff " 
add 4 <s." 



28 



Gender. 

A noun may be the name of a male, a female, or 
an object which is neither male nor female. 

The gentleman and lady are in the car. 

Does the noun "gentleman" denote a male, or 
female? A male. 

What is the gender of the name of a male? 
Masculine. 

Then of what gender is u gentleman "? Mascu- 
line. 

Does "lady" denote a male or female? A 
female. 

What is the gender of the name of a female? 
Feminine. 

Then of what gender is "lady" ? Feminine. 

Does " car" denote a male, a female, or neither? 
Neither. 

What is the gender of a noun that is neither male 
nor female? Neuter. 

What does " neuter" mean? It means neither. 

Of what gender is " car "? Neuter. 

The boy and his sister were playing at ball 

What words are nouns in this example ? 
Of what person is each ? Why ? 
Of what number? Why? 
Of what grander? Why? 



29 



Examples. 

1. William's cheek was wet with! his mother's tears, 

2. Man, the hermit, sighed, till woman smiled. 

3. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, over the grave 
where our hero we buried. 

4. There is no breeze upon the lake. 

5. Why should gold man's feeble mind decoy ? 

6. The fisherman drags to the shore his laden nets. 

7. The schoolboy lags with satchel in his hand. 



William ivalks. 

What pronoun may be used for "William" in 
this sentence? " He." 

What number, person, and gender is u William'' ? 
Why? 

The pupils may take the pupils' seats. 

What pronoun may be used so as to avoid the 
repetition of " pupils " in this sentence ? " Their." 

What number and person is " pupils "? 

Is it necessary to determine the gender of a noun 
when it is of the third person plural? No. 

Why? Because we use the same pronoun to 
represent a noun of either gender, in the plural 
number ; as, 

The boys may take their seats. 

The girls may take their seats. 

The trees have dropped their leaves. 

Of what number are the three nouns, " boys,' 5 
"girls," "trees"? 

Why? 



30 



Of what person? Why? 

What is the gender of " boys "? Why? 

Of "girls"? Why? 

Of "trees"? Why? 

What pronoun represents each of these nouns of 
different genders ? " Their." 

Of what person and number is "their"? Third, 
plural, like the nouns. 

When is it unnecessary to tell the gender of 
nouns? When they are plural. 

Why? Because the same pronoun will represent 
a plural noun of either gender. 



Case. 

William sees John. 
How may this sentence be written, using a pro- 
noun instead of " William "? 

He sees John. 
What pronoun is used instead of " William" in 
this example? "He." 



This is William's hat. 
What pronoun may be used instead of " Will- 
iam's " here? " His." 



31 



John sees William. • 

What pronoun may be used instead of u Will- 
iam" in this example? " Him." 

Is the same noun always represented by the same 
form of the pronoun ? It is not. 

How many forms of the pronoun are used in 
these examples to represent the noun " William "? 
Three. 

What are they? " He," " his," " him." 

What are these different forms called ? Cases. 

How many cases are there? Three. 

What are they called? Nominative, possessive, 
and objective. Thus : 

William (he) sees John. Nominative case. 

This is William's {his) hat. Possessive case. 

John sees William (him). Objective case. 

How many different forms has the noun i; Will- 
iam " in the three cases ? Only two. 

What cases of nouns are alike in form? The 
nominative and objective. 

How is the possessive case formed? By the addi- 
tion of an apostrophe and the letter " s." 

- What is an apostrophe ? A comma placed above 
the line ; thus ('). 

The girls (they) were singing. Nominative, 

These are the girls' (their) bonnets. Possessive. 

I have seen the girls (them). Objective. 

How is the possessive case of the noun formed in 
this example ? By adding an apostrophe. 



32 



Boy, 


Man, 


Lady, 


Hero, 


Boy's, 


Man's, 


Lady's, 


Hero's, 


Boy. 


Man. 

Plural. 


Lady. 


Hero. 


Boys, 


Men, 


Ladies, 


Heroes, 


Boys', 


Men's, 


Ladies', 


Heroes', 


Boys. 


Men. 


Ladies. 


Heroes. 



Why is " s " omitted? To avoid an unpleasant 
succession of the hissing sounds. 

TABLE OF NOUNS. 
Singular. 
Nominative case. 
Possessive case. 
Objective case. 

Nominative case. 
Possessive case. 

Objective case. 

Does the nominative case differ in form from the 
objective? No. 

Jn which case is the noun varied? The pos- 
sessive. 

In writing sentences, may we disregard the cases 
of nouns unless they are in the possessive? Yes. 

Why? Because in the other two cases they are 
written exactly alike. 

What parts of speech are varied in the different 
cases? The personal pronouns and the relative pro- 
noun " who." 

See table in next lesson. 



TABLE OF PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

To be committed. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nominative. 


I, 


We, v 


Possessive. 


My or mine, 


Our or ours 


Objective. 


Me; 


Us. 



33 



SECOND PERSON. COMMON STYLE. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


You, 


You, 


Possessive. 


Your or yours, 


Your or yours, 


Objective. 


You ; 

FORMAL STYLE. 


You. 


Nominative. 


Thou, 


Ye, 


Possessive. 


Thy or thine, 


Your or yours, 


Objective. 


Thee; 


You. 



THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nominative. He, She, It, 

Possessive. His, Her or hers, Its, 

Objective. Him; Her; It. 



THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 

Nominative. They, 





Possessive. 


Their or 


theirs, 




Objective. 


Them. 




TABLE OF RELATIVE P] 


R.ONO 


Nominative. 


Who, 


Which, 




Possessive. 


Whose, 






Objective. 


Whom ; 


Which 





That, 



That. 



Personal Pronouns. 

Why are the pronouns in the first table called per- 
sonal pronouns? Because they show by their form 
the person of the noun which they represent. 

Of what person is " I" ? The first person. 



34 



Why ? Because it is used instead of the name of 
the person speaking. 

Of what person is "thou"? The second. 

Why ? Because it is used instead of the name of 
the person spoken to. 

Of what person is " he " ? The third. 

Why? Because it is used instead of the name of 
the person or thing spoken of . 

Why are the pronouns in the second table called 
relative pronouns? Because they are used instead 
of nouns, and also connect sentences. 

The officers pursued the thief, who fled. 

How many assertions are made in this example? 
Two. 

What is the first? " The officers pursued the 
thief." 

What is the second? " Who fled." 

What part of speech is " who " ? A pronoun. 

Why? Because it is used instead of the noun 
"thief." 

If the pronoun "who" is used in this example, 
is it necessary to supply a conjunction to connect 
the sentences? No. 

If I say, "The officers pursued the thief , — he 
fled," is a conjunction required to connect the sen- 
tences? Yes. 

What, then, is the use of the word " whov" in 
this example? It is used instead of the noun 
" thief," and also connects the two sentences. 



35 



What, then, is it called? A relative pronoun. 

This is the man ivho (that) bought a horse. 

This is the horse which (that) the man bought. 

This is the house which (that) was bought. 

Which of the relative pronouns may be used in- 
stead of a noun which is the name of a person? 
^ Who," "that." 

Which of the relative pronouns may be used in- 
stead of a name of an animal or inanimate thiug? 
44 Which," "that." 

To what, then, may " who " relate? To persons. 

To what may 4 ' which " relate ? To animals and 
inanimate things. 

To what may "that" relate? To persons, ani- 
mals, and inanimate things. 

/ saiv the man who was injured. 

Is " I saw the man " an assertion? 

Is " who was injured " an assertion? 

How many assertions in the example ? 

Then how many sentences in it ? 

What pronoun is used to represent i; man " in the 
second? " Who." 

- Is there a conjunction to connect the two sen- 
tences? No. 

What does connect them? " Who." 

Then what kind of a pronoun is " who " ? A 
relative pronoun. 

What person and number is "man"? Third 
person, singular. 



36 



Then what person and number is " who"? Third, 
singular. 

In what respect are pronouns like the nouns they 
represent? In person and number. 

Statement. — Pronouns agree in person and num- 
ber with the nouns they represent. 

What can the pronoun " who " be used instead 
of? The names of persons only. 

What case is " who " ? (See table.) 

What other relative pronoun can be used in this 
example to represent u man"? 

How would it read? "I saw the man that was 
injured." 

In what case, then, is Ci that"? Nominative. 

Examples. 

I have found the knife that Charles lost. 
Here is the boy whose pen I borrowed. 
William, who was present, consented. 
This is the gentleman whom I mentioned. 
The horse that ran away was killed. 



Subject and Predicate. 

Birds fly. 
What are we speaking of in this sentence? 



Birds. 



37 



What do we call that which we are speaking about? 
The subject. 

Then what is the subject of this sentence? Birds. 

What do we say about birds? They fly. 

What do we call that which asserts or declares a 
thing? A predicate. 

What do we affirm, or assert, or predicate, of 
birds in this sentence ? That they fly. 

What do we mean, then, by the predicate of a 
sentence ? The word that declares or asserts some- 
thing of the subject. 

Does a sentence always have a subject and predi- 
cate? Yes. 

Why? Because, when we speak, there must be 
something that we speak about, and something that 
we say about it. 

A good man. 
Is this a sentence? It is not. 
Why? Because nothing is asserted or predicated 
of the man. 

Acts ivell. 
Is this a sentence ? It is not. 
-Why? Because there is no subject of which 
" acting well" is predicated or asserted. 

A good man acts ivell. 
Is this a sentence? It is. 

Why ? Because it has a subject and a predicate. 
What is the subject ? ' ' Man. " 



38 



What is the predicate? " Acts." 

What part of speech is " man " ? A noun. Why ? 

Of what number? Why? 

Of what person ? Why ? 

Of what gender? Why? 

What pronoun may be used in its place? " He." 

In what case is "he "? Nominative. (See table 
of pronouns.) 

Then in what case is " man "? Nominative. 

In what case, then, must the subject be? In the 
nominative. 

Statement. — The subject of a sentence must be 
in the nominative case. 

Horses ran. 

What are we speaking of in this sentence? 
Horses. 

Then what is the subject? 

What is affirmed or predicated of "horses"? 
That they ran. 

Then what is the predicate ? 

What part of speech is u horses "? A noun. 

Why? 

W^hat number ? Why ? 

What person? Why? 

Is it necessary to tell the gender when the noun 
is plural? No. v 

Why ? Because the same pronoun is used instead 
of a masculine, feminine, or neuter noun in the plural. 



39 



In what case is " horses " ? Nominative. 

Why? Because it is the subject. 

In what case must the subject be ? 

What pronoun may be used instead of " horses "? 
" They." 

Why may not " them " be used instead of 
" Lorses "in this sentence? Because " them " is in 
the objective case, and the subject must be in the 
nominative. 



Examples. 

1. Trees grow. 2. Scholars study. 3. Charles jumps. 4. Virtue 
will be rewarded. 5. Children are taught. 6. Flowers will wither. 
7. The men talked. 8. Stephen was stoned. 9. Cicero was ad- 
mired. 10. Bovs will talk. 



1, studies. 2. will grow. 3. has come. 

4. have arrived. 5. will be loved. 6. run. 

7. play. 8. fly. 9. walks. 10. bark. 

1. Boys . 2, Flowers . 3. Birds . 4. Men 

— . 5. Scholars- . 6. Children . 7. Anna . 



8. Gnats . 9. Fishes . 10. Lions ■ 



John's dog barks. 

, What are we speaking of in this sentence? The 
dog. 

What, then, is the subject? "Dog." 

Why? 

What part of speech is " dog " ? Why ? 

What number ? Why ? 

What person? What case? 



40 



In what case must the subject be ? 

What do we assert of the dog? That he barks. 

What, then, is the predicate? Why? 

What part of speech is "barks"? 

W^hat word denotes the owner or possessor of the 
dog? "John's." 

What part of speech is " John's "? A noun. 

Why? 

Of what number? Why? 

What person ? Why ? 

What gender? Why ? 

How is it varied to denote the owner or possessor? 
An apostrophe and " s" are added. 

What pronoun may be used instead of " John's "? 
"His." 

In what case is "his"? (See table of pronouns.) 

In what case is tfc John's "? Possessive. 

In what case, then, is a noun when it is varied to 
denote the owner or possessor? Possessive. 

Statement. — When a noun is varied to denote 
the oivner or possessor, it is in the possessive case. 

Examples. 

1. Edward's book has been found. 

2. Charles saw Henry's classmate. 

3. William's mother has returned. 

4. A friend's infirmities should be borne. 

5. Henry's dog is lost. 6. George saw the boy's sled. 

1. books have been lost. 2. parents rejoice. 

3. I met — brother. 4. Charles found knife. 



41 

5. Anna followed advice. 

6. They felt the hot rays. 

John spoke to William, 

What is the subject of this sentence? " John." 

What part of speech is u John "? Why? 

Number? Person? Gender? Case? 

What personal pronoun may be used instead of 
"John"? 

What is the predicate? " Spoke/' 

What part of speech is it? 

What part of speech is " to"? A preposition. 

What is it used for in this sentence ? To connect 
" William " with "spoke." 

What pronoun may be used instead of " William"? 
"Him." 

What case is " him " ? (See table of pronouns.) 

Then what case is '- William " ? Objective. 

Why? Because it follows a preposition that con- 
nects it with another word. 

Statement. — Prepositions require the objective 
case after them. 

Is the objective case of every noun written like 
its nominative case? Yes. 

William saw John. 

What is the subject of this sentence? The pred- 
icate? Whom did William see? John. 

What pronoun may be used instead of " John"? 



42 



Him. In what case is " him " ? Then in wha^tcase 
is " John"? 

Does it require a preposition between " saw " and 
"John," to make sense? No. 

Do all verbs admit a noun after them in the ob- 
jective case? They do not. 

What is a verb called which takes a noun after it 
in the objective case? A Transitive verb. 

What kind of a verb is " saw " in the above 
example ? Transitive. Why ? 

Would it be proper to say, " John went Boston"? 
No. Why? Because the verb " went " will not 
admit the objective case without a preposition. 

What kind of a verb then is 4 ' went " ? Intran- 
sitive. Why? 

Statement. — Transitive verbs require the ob- 
jective case after them. 



Mode. 



What does mode mean? Manner. 

What does mode mean when applied to verbs f 
The manner in which they are used. 

If I say, " William walks/' how is the verb used? 
It is used to declare what he does. 

William can walk. 
How is tne verb used here ? To declare his ability 
to walk. 



43 



When a verb is used for simple declaration or 
indication, in what mode is it? Indicative mode. 

When a verb is used to declare ability or power to 
perform an action, in what mode is it? Potential. 

1. William may go. 2. William can go. 

3. William must go. 4. William might go. 

5. William could go. 6. William would go. 

7. William should go. 

What does the first sentence declare ? The possi- 
bility that William will go ; or it grants him liberty 
to go. 

The third ? It declares the necessity of his going. 

The second, fourth, and fifth? They declare his 
ability to go. 

The sixth? It declares his will or inclination to 

go. 

The seventh? It declares his obligation to go. 

In what mode are verbs, when they express 
possibility , liberty, power, will, obligation, or neces- 
sity ? In the potential mode. 

What is the meaning of "potential"? It means 
powerful. 

Does the potential mode always express power ? 
No. 

What does it express? It expresses possibility, 
liberty, poiver, will, obligation, or necessity, by using 
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should. 

If a verb, from its signification, without the use of 



44 



any of these words, expresses power, obligation, 
etc., is it said to be in the potential mode? No. 

If I say, " William may go if he wishes" how is 
the verb u wishes" used? To express a condition. 

What is the condition under which he is permitted 
to go? That he wishes or desires it. 

In what mode is a verb when it expresses a con- 
dition? In the subjunctive mode. 

What is the meaning of " subjunctive "? It 
means something Joined or added. 

Children, obey your parents. 

How is the verb '-obey "used in this example? 
It is used to express a command. 

In what mode is a verb which is used to express a 
command? Imperative mode. 

What is the meaning of "imperative"? Com- 
manding. 

Is the imperative mode always used to command ? 
No. 

For what other purpose is it used? For praying 
or entreating ; as, " Give us this day our daily 
bread." u Do let me have the book." 

1. Children obey their parents. 

2. Children must obey their parents. 

3. Children should obey their parents. v 

4. Children, obey your parents. 

5. Children will be happy if they obey their parents. 



45 



In what mode is "obey" in the first example? 
Indicative. 

Why? Because it is used for simple declaration. 

In what mode is "must obey" in the second ex- 
ample? Potential. 

Why? Because it expresses necessity, by the 
aid of i; must." 

In what mode is " should obey " in the third 
example ? Potential. 

Why? Because the verb expresses obligation by 
the aid of " should." 

In what mode is " obey " in the fourth example? 
Imperative. 

Why? Because it is used for commanding. 

In what mode is " obey" in the fifth example? 
Subjunctive. 

Why? Because it is used to express the condition 
under which children may be happ} T . 

Children are commanded to obey their parents. 
What is the subject of this sentence ? " Children." 
What is the predicate? fct Are commanded." 
What part of speech is " are* commanded "? A 

verb. 

What other verb in this sentence? u Obey." 
Why is it a verb ? Because it may be used as a 

predicate, to assert or affirm. 

Is it used as a predicate in this example ? It is 

not. 



46 

la what mode is a verb when it is not used as a 
predicate? Infinitive. 

What word generally precedes a verb in the in- 
finitive mode ? The preposition « to." 

How many modes have verbs? Five. 

What are they? Indicative, potential, imperative, 
subjunctive, and infinitive. 

William must study his lesson. 

What is asserted of William? That he *•* 

*What part of speech is must study ? A verb. 
WhY ? Because it is used to assert something. 

x^trrrpo^r^e.nsedto 

express necessity, by the aid of must. 

Examples. 
1 William studies his lessons. 

i William has ^«t John can buy a book. 
3. George returned yesterday. acheV9 . 

5. John may buy a book. 6. Bojs, ooey y 
7 Pupils should obey their teachers. 



10. Charles, bring your book to me. 



10. unaries, un^o j 

U i love to look on a scene so lovely. 

12 The boy had returned when I arrived. 

it r^rirs^rrharu- ^* » 

di ?5 ke The boy will attend school if his parents consent. 
16. Do give me the knife. 



47 



Tense. 

What is the meaning of tense, as applied to verbs ? 
It means the time when an action is done. 

What is the most common division of time? Into 
present, past, and time to come, or future. 

If I say, " Henry walks," when do I represent 
the action as taking place ? Now. 

In what tense, then, is " walks " ? Present. 

If I say, " Henry walked yesterday," when do 
I represent the action to have taken place? In a 
space of time ivholly past. 

In what tense is " walked " ? Past. 

If I say, u Henry has walked to-day," when is 
the action represented as being done ? In a space 
of time which is not wholly p>ast. 

In what tense is " has walked " ? Present perfect. 

If I say, " Henry had walked before you saw 
him," when did the action take place? Before a 
past time, mentioned. 

In what tense is " had walked " ? Past perfect. 

If I say, t4 Henry will walk," when do I assert 
that the action will take place ? In time to come, or 
future time. 

In what tense is " will come " ? Future. 

If I say, u Henry will have walked before to- 
morrow," when is the action represented to take 
place? In future time before a time mentioned. 

In what tense is " will have walked"? Future 
perfect. 



48 



How many tenses have verbs ? Six. 

What are they? Present, present perfect, past, 
past perfect, future, future perfect. 

When does the present tense represent an action 
as taking place ? Now. 

When does the past tense represent an action as 
having taken place ? In a space of time wholly past. 

When does the present perfect tense represent an 
action as having taken place? In a space of time 
not wholly past. 

When does the past perfect tense represent an 
action as having taken place? Before a past time 
mentioned. 

When does the future tense represent that an 
action will take place ? In time to come, or future 
time. 

When does the future perfect tense represent that 
the action will have taken place ? At a future time, 
before a time mentioned. 



Examples. 

1. The horse runs. 2. The horses have run. 

3. The birds flew. 

4. The stage had left when I arrived. 

5. Charles will learn his lesson. 

6. James will have arrived before noon. 

7. George has returned from the country. 

8. George came home last week. 

9. The ship sails well. 10. The girls gathered flowers. \ 

11. The gentleman will call to-morrow. 

12. William did not work yesterday, but he has worked to-day. 



49 

13. I lay down yesterday after dinner. 

14. Hens lay eggs. 15. The sun sets at night. 
16. William and George sit at the same desk. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB " TEACH." 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Teach. Past. Taught. 

Past participle. Taught. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I teach, We teach, 

You teach, You or ye teach, 

He teaches. They teach. 

PRESENT PERFECT. 

I have taught, We have taught, 

You have taught, You or ye have taught, 

Pie has taught. They have taught. 

PAST. 

I taught, We taught, 

You taught, You or ye taught, 

He taught. They taught. 

PAST PERFECT. 

I had taught, . We had taught, 

You had taught, You or ye had taught, 

He had taught. They had taught. 

FUTURE. 
I shall or will teach, We shall or will teach, 

You shall or will teach, You or ye shall or will teach, 

He shall or will teach. They shall or will teach. 



50 



FUTURE PERFECT. 



I shall have taught, 
You will have taught, 
He will have taught. 



We shall have taught, 
You or ye will have taught, 
They will have taught. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT. 

I may, can, or must teach, We may, can, or must teach, 

You may, can, or must teach, You, or ye may, can, or must 

teach, 
He may, can, or must teach. They may, can, or must teach. 



or must have 



I may, can, 

taught, 
You may, can 

taught, 
He may, can, or must have 

taught. 



PRESENT PERFECT. 

must have We may, can, or must have 

taught, 
You or ye may, can, or must 

have taught, 
They may, can, or must have 

taught. 



PAST, 

I might, could, would, or should 

teach, 
You might, could, would, or 

should teach, 
He might, could, would, or 

should teach. 



We might, could, would, or 

should teach, 
You or ye might, could, would, 

or should teach, 
They might, could, would, or 

should teach. 



PAST PERFECT. 



I might, could, would, or should 

have taught, 
You might, could, would, or 

should have taught, 
He might, could, would, or 

should have taught. 



We might, could, would, or 

should have taught, 
You or ye might, could, would, 

or should have taught^ 
The}' might, could, would, or 

should have taught. 



51 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT. 

If I teach, If we teach, 

If you teach, If you or ye teach, 

If he teach. If they teach. 

Same forms as the indicative and potential, preceded by if, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Teach you or thou, or do you or thou teach, 
Teach you or ye, or do you or ye teach. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To teach. Present perfect. To have taught. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present participle. Teaching-. Past participle. Taught. 



PAPvTICIPLES. 

What is the meaning of " participle " ? A par- 
ticipator, or sharer. 

What is the meaning of the term " participle " 
when applied to words ? It means certain forms of 
-the verb which are used as adjectives, or nouns, and 
yet retain something of the nature of the verb. 

How many participles are derived from a verb ? 
Two. 

What are they called? The present and the past. 
What is the present participle of the verb " love"? 
" Loving." 



52 



How does the present participle end? In 
" ing." 

What is the present participle of the verb 
"speak"? " Speaking." 

Of the verb "hear" ? " Hearing." 

What is the past participle of the verb " love "? 
"Loved." 

What is the past participle of the verb " speak"? 
"Spoken." 

Of the verb fc ' hear " ? " Heard." 



Examples, 

Walk, run, strike, write, go, try, improve, rely, rejoice, read, 
realize, represent, partake, form, prefix, begin, receive, give, etc. 



Verb Be or Am. 

What is the usual form of this verb, in the indica- 
tive mode, present tense? " Are." 

Give examples. "You are," "we are," "they 
are." 

What is the form when the subject is of the first 
person, singular number? " Am." 

What is the form when the subject is of the third 
person singular? " Is." 

What is the usual form of the past tense of 
this verb? "Were." V 

What is the form when the subject is of the first 



53 



or third person singular? " Was ; " as, ci I was," 
u he was." 

What is the usual form of the present perfect 
tense? " Have been ; " as, " I have been ; " " you 
have been," " we have been," "they have been." 

What is the form of the present perfect tense when 
the subject is of the third person singular? " Has 
been ; " as, " he has been." 

Is the verb varied in the other three tenses of the 
indicative mode ? It is not. 

Is it varied in the potential mode ? No. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

f When the subject is of the first i 

j person singular J 

Present. \ When the subject is of the third \ * 

j person singular J 

[ Usual form . , Are. 

r When the subject is of the first \ 

Past. 1 or third person singular . . . j 

l Usual form Were. 

c When the subject is of the third ■) T , . 
Present . , I Has been. 

< person singular j 

Perfect. ( Usual form . Have been. 

Past perfect. Had been. 

Future. Shall or will be. 

Future perfect. Shall or will have been. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present. May, can, or must be. 

Past. Might, could, would, or should be. 

Present perfect. May, can, or must have been. 

Past perfect. Might, could, would, or should have been. 



54 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Indicative and subjunctive forms preceded by if. 

The following forms are sometimes used in the subjunctive mode, 
present and imperfect tenses : 





Present tense. 




If I be, 


If you be, 


If he be ; 


If we be, 


If they be. 

Past. 




If I were, 


If you were, 


If he were ; 


If we were, 


If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present. Be. 





INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To be. 

Present perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. 
Past. Been. 



Active and Passive Forms. 

A transitive verb may be used in two ways. In 
the active form, it represents the subject as the actor 
or doer ; in the passive form, the subject is repre- 
sented as the receiver. 






55 



John struck the horse. The horse was. struck by 
John. 

Do these two sentences express the same idea, or 
different ones? The same. 

What is the subject of the first sentence? 
" John." 

Is "John" the doer, or receiver? The doer, or 
actor. 

What did he do ? He struck. 

Is 4i struck," then, active or passive? Active. 

Why ? Because the subject is the actor. 

What is the subject of the second sentence? 
" Horse." 

Is u horse" the doer, or receiver? The receiver. 

What did he receive ? He received the blow which 
"John struck." 

Is " was struck " active, or passive? Passive. 

Why ? Because the subject is the receiver of an 

action. 

Examples. 

I have read the book. 

The partiality of friends may have injured the boy. 

The girls gathered flowers. 

Charles caught a fish. 

James could not find the book. 

James sees Thomas. Thomas is seen by James. 

In the first sentence, is the verb " sees" in the 
active or passive form ? 
Why? 



56 



In which form is the verb " is seen," in the second 
sentence? 

Why? 

How is the passive verb " is seen " formed? By 
adding the past participle of the verb "see" to a 
part of the verb " am," or " be." 

What is the past participle of the verb " see "? 
" Seen." 

What part of the verb "be" is the verb " is"? 
The indicative mode, present tense, used with a sub- 
ject in the third person, singular number. 

Read these sentences with the verb in the past 
tense. " James saw Thomas." " Thomas was 
seen by James." 

Put the verbs in the indicative, present perfect. 
" James has seen Thomas." "Thomas has been 
seen by James." 

Past perfect. "James had seen Thomas. "Thomas 
had been seen by James." 

Future. "James will see Thomas." " Thomas 
will be seen by James." 

Future perfect. " James will have seen Thomas." 
" Thomas will have been seen by James." 



Examples for Practice. 

1. I study the lesson. 2. William learns arithmetic. 
3. Horses eat hay. 4. Boys wear hats. 

5. A garment of brightness illumed its dark path. 

6. The Indian paddles the light canoe. 



Di 



Peogressiye Form. 

Henry speaks. Henry is speaking. 

How does the second sentence differ from the 
first? It indicates that the action is progressing, or. 
going forward. 

What is the form of the verb called ? The pro- 
gressive form. 



Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

How are verbs divided with regard to their forms? 
Into regular and irregular verbs. 

What verbs are regular ? Those whose past tense 
and past participle are formed by adding u ed " to 
the present tense, or " d " only when the verb ends 
in "e." 

Is u love " regular, or irregular? Regular. 

Why? Because its past tense and past participle 
are formed by adding " d" to the present tense. 

What verbs are irregular? Those whose past 
tense and past participle are not formed by adding 
u ed," or k4 d " when the present ends in " e." 

What is the past tense of the verb "destroy"? 
" Destroyed." 

What is the past participle of this word ? 4 ' De- 
stroyed." 

Is " destroy" a regular verb? Yes. 



58 



Why? Because its past tense and past participle 
are formed by adding " ed " to the present. 

What is the past tense, and past participle of 
the verb ' ' teach " ? " Taught. " 

Are the past tense and past participle of this verb 
formed by adding " ed " to the present tense? They 
are not. 

Is the verb tc teach " regular, or irregular? 
Irregular. 

Examples. 

Move, hear, sell, desire, offer, occur, behave, control, delight, 
cry, beseech, do, sit, hermit. 



Adjective Pronouns, 
table 1. table 2. table 3. 



Demonstrative. 


Indefinite. 


Distributive 


This, former, 


Some, all, both, 


Each, 


that, latter. 


other, such, several, 


every, 


these, 


any, no, etc. 


either, 


those, 


one, none, 


neither. 



What are adjective pronouns? They are words 
which may be used either as adjectives or pronouns. 

How are they divided? Into demonstrative, in- 
definite, and distributive. 

Why are those in the first table called demonstra- 
tive? Because they show definitely what is meant; 
as, ki this book," "that book." 



59 



Why are those in the second table called indefi- 
nite ? Because they do not show definitely what is 
meant; as, "some book," "any book." 

Why are those in the third table called distribu- 
tive. Because they refer to things separately ; as, 
" each book," " every book." 

Repeat table of demonstrative pronouns. 

Repeat table of indefinite pronouns. 

Repeat table of distributive pronouns. 

Examples. 

This book is mine. Each boy recited. 

This is my book. Every girl must be studious. 

Some books are good, and others are bad. 



Comparison of Adjectives. 
William is wise. 
What does the adjective " wise " express in this 
sentence? It simply describes or expresses the 
quality of William. 

John is iviser than William. 

What does the adjective " wiser " express in this 
sentence? It expresses the quality of John as 
compared with William. 



60 



Henry is the wisest of the three. 

What does the adjective " wisest " express in this 
sentence? It expresses the quality of Henry, as 
compared with both of the others. 

Do the adjectives " wise, " wiser," "wisest," 
express the same quality? They do. 

Does each express the same degree of the quality? 
It does not. 

Which word simply expresses the quality? 
" Wise." 

Which expresses a higher degree of the same qual- 
ity? " Wiser." 

Which expresses the highest degree of the quality? 
" Wisest." 

How many degrees of wisdom are expressed by 
these words? Three. 

What are these degrees called in grammar ? The 
degrees of comparison. What is that form of an 
adjective called which simply expresses the quality? 
The positive. 

What is that form called which expresses a higher 
degree of the quality ? The comparative. 

What is that form called which expresses the 
highest degree of the quality? The superlative. 

What degree of comparison is "wise"? Posi- 
tive. 

Why? Because it simply expresses the quality. 

What degree is "wiser"? Comparative, v 

Why ? Because it expresses a higher degree of the 
quality than the positive. 



61 



What degree is " wisest"? Superlative. 
Why? Because it expresses (he highest degree of 
the quality. 

Positive. Wise. 

Comparative. Wiser. 
Superlative. Wisest. 

How are the comparative and superlative degrees 
of the adjective '* wise" formed? 

Let the pupil compare the following adjectives : 
rich, young, old, poor, great, strong, vjeak, pure, 
firm, cold, icarm. 

Industrious men work. 

How may the adjective " industrious " be made to 
express a higher degree of the quality ? By placing 
the adverb " more" before it. 

How may it be made to express the highest 
degree? By prefixing '-most" to the positive 
form. 

Positive. Industrious. 

Comparative. More industrious. 
Superlative. Most industrious. 

How are the comparative and superlative degrees 
of the adjective "industrious" formed? 

Compare the following adjectives in the same 
manner : beautiful, dutiful, anxious, desirous, eager, 
consistent, ignorant, impatient. 



62 



How are adjectives of one syllable commonly 
compared? By adding u r " or " er " in the com- 
parative, and " st" or " est " in the superlative. 

How are adjectives of more than one syllable 
commonly compared? By prefixing "more" and 
" most " to the positive form. 

How may adjectives be made to express a lower 
and the lowest degree of quality? By prefixing 
" less " and " least " to the positive form. 



Positive. Industrious. 

Comparative. Less industrious. 
Superlative. Least industrious. 



Compare the following adjectives in the same 
maimer : intense, happy, strong, general, wise, com- 
fortable, anxious, dutiful, rich. 

Some adjectives are irregularly compared ; as, 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Bad, ill, or evil, 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest or furthest 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost or first. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Late, 


later, 


latest or last. 


Much or many, 


more, 


most. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest or neSxt. 


Old, 


elder, 


eldest. 



63 



Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Hinder, 


hindermost or hindmost 


Inner, 


innermost or inmost. 


Nether, 


nethermost. 


Upper, 


uppermost or upmost. 



Adjectives of number, and those whose quality does not admit of 
change in degree, cannot be compared; as, endless, absent, present, 
boundless, one, two, almighty, annual. 



Articles. 

If I say, "Give me a book," do I specify defi- 
nitely what book I want? No. 

If I say, " Give me the book," to what do you 
understand me to refer? To some particular book. 

What may u a" be called? An indefinite article. 

What may " the" be called? A definite article. 

Is it proper to say " a boy " ? Yes. 

Is it proper to say " a boys "? No. 

Before what nouns may the indefinite article be 
placed? Before nouns in the singular number. 

Is it proper to say " the boy," and " the boys"? 
Yes. 

Before what nouns, then, may the definite article 
be placed? Before nouns of either number. 

Is it proper to say "a apple," "a orange," " a 
hour " ? 

What must be used instead of u a " in these 
examples? "An." 



64 



Why? Because the following word begins with 
a vowel sound. 

When must "an" be used instead of u a"? 
When it is placed before a word beginning with a 
vowel sound. 



Examples. 



— woman. army. 

workman. house. 



umpire. 



horses. 





vmitVi 


uuru. 


V U LI til. 


onest man. 
rivers. 




— die- 



tionary. ■ hovel. hourglass. hourglasses. 



Analysis, or Parsing. 
Boys play. 

Is this a sentence? Yes. 

Why? Because the words are combined so as to 
convey an idea. 

What is the subject? Why ? 

What is the predicate ? Why ? 

What part of speech is the subject? Why? 

Of what gender? Why? 

Person? Why? Number? Why? 

What personal pronoun may be used in its place t 

In what case, then, is the subject? 

What part of speech is " play "? Why? 



65 



What is the past tense of tlie verb "play"? 
"Played." 

What is the past participle? .*'* Played." 

Does this verb form its imperfect tense and past 
participle by the addition of " ed " to the present? 
It does. 

Is it regular, or irregular? Why? 

Transitive, or intransitive ? Why? 

What mode? Why? 

Tense? Why? 

Is the form of the verb varied on account of the 
person and number of the subject? 

When is the form varied in the indicative mode 
and present tense? When the subject is of the third 
person, singular number. 

How is the fact that " a verb is sometimes varied 
on account of the person and number of its subject " 
generally expressed ? By saying that fc ' a verb agrees 
with its subject in number and person." 

Do verbs really have person and number? They 
do not. 

If I say, " I study T " of what person and number 
is "study" said to be? Of the first person, 
singular. 

" We study " ? Of the first person, plural. 

Why? Because its subject is of the first person, 
plural. 

" They study " ? Of the third person, plural. 

Why ? 

" He studies"? Of the third person, singular. 



66 



When a noun or pronoun stands in the relation of 
a subject to a predicate, in what case must it be? 
Nominative. 

Can you state the fact in general terms? The 
subject of a verb must be in the nominative case. 

When a verb stands in the relation of a predicate 
to a subject, of what person and number is it said to 
be ? Of the same person and number as the subject. 

How may this fact be stated in general terms? 
A verb agrees with its subject in number and person* 



Examples. 

Birds fly. Men work. James studies. Water runs. We speak. 
They talk. 



Industrious men work. 
Is this a sentence ? Why ? 
What is the subject? Why? 
The predicate ? Why ? 

What word describes the men, or limits them to a 
certain class ? 

What part of speech is the subject? Why? 

What person ? Why ? 

Number? Why? Case? Why? 

What part of speech. is the predicate? 

Why? 

Regular, or irregular ? Why ? 

Transitive, or intransitive? Why? 

Mode and tense? Why? 



67 



Person and number? Why? 
What part of speech is '.* industrious " ? 
Why? Compare it. 

Of what degree of comparison is it ? Why ? 
What does it describe or limit? 
What part of speech may adjectives limit? 
State the fact in general terms. Adjectives describe 
or limit nouns. 

Examples. 

Idle boys play. Little children grow. A wise man will reflect. 
The good king reigned. Bad men have lived. 

The man talked foolishly . 

What is the subject of this sentence? 
Why? 

The predicate ? Why ? 
What part of speech is the subject? Why? 
Gender? Person? Number? Case? 
Why? 

What part of speech is the predicate ? 
Why? 

Is it regular, or irregular? 
Transitive, or intransitive? 
Mode? Tense? Person and number? 
Why? 

What part of speech is " the " ? 
What kind? Why? 

What nouns may "the" be placed before, or 
prefixed to? To nouns of either number. 



68 



What is the word " foolishly " used for? 
What part of speech is it? 
What does it describe or limit? 
What may adverbs limit? Adverbs may limit or 
qualify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 



Examples. 

James has acted very wisely. A prudent man acts cautiously. 
Sometimes boys study well. The teacher will be here soon. 



Charles picks berries. 

What is the subject ? The predicate ? 

What part of speech is the subject? 

Gender? Person? Number? Case? 

Why ? 

What part of speech is the predicate ? 

Regular, or irregular? 

Transitive, or intransitive? 

Mode? Tense? Person and number? 

Agreement? 

What part of speech is " berries "? 

Person ? Number ? 

What personal pronoun may be used instead of 
the noun " berries"? 

In what case is " them "? (See table of personal 
pronouns.) 

In what case, then, is " berries"? v 

Why ? Because it follows a transitive verb. 






69 



State this fact in general terms. Transitive verbs 
require the objective case after them. 

Charles picks berries for Anna. 

What part of speech is " for"? A preposition. 

Why? 

What does it connect? The verb " picks" with 
" Anna." 

What may prepositions connect? Prepositions 
connect ivords. 

What part of speech is " Anna " ? 

What gender? Person? Number? 

What personal pronoun may be used instead of 
the noun " Anna "? 

In what case is " her " ? 

In what case, then, is " Anna " ? 

Why ? Because it follows a preposition. 

What is the general statement or rule for this? 
Prepositions require the objective case after them. 

Exercises. 

The girls gathered flowers in the garden. 
William brought the book from England. 
The boy found a knife in the street. 
A noise from the street alarmed us. 

William's dog has run away. 
What is the subject ? 
What is the predicate ? 



70 



Parse the subject. Parse the predicate. 

What part of speech is " William's "? 

Gender? Person? Number? 

What is it used for in this sentence ? To tell the 
owner of the dog. 

What personal pronoun may be used instead of 
the noun " William's " ? 

In what case is " his " ? 

Then in what case is u William's " ? 

What is the rule with regard to the possessive 
case ? A noun or pronoun varied to denote the owner, 
or possessor, is in the possessive case. 

What part of speech is " away"? Why? 

What does it describe or limit? 

Exercises. 

Warren's father will return from California. 

James had torn Edward's book. 

A friend should bear a friend's infirmities. 

The boy's parents loved him. I found a lady's bonnet. 

The milliner makes ladies' bonnets. 

I am the man. 

Parse the subject and predicate. 

What part of speech is " man"? 

Gender? Person? Number? 

What personal pronoun may be used in its stead ? 

What case is " man " ? Nominative. 

Do the words 4i I " and " man " refer to the same 



person ? They do. 



71 



When a noun follows an intransitive verb, and 
means the same thing as the noun or pronoun which 
precedes it, in what case must it be? In the same 
case as the word preceding the verb. 

What rule, or general statement, can you make 
of this ? Intransitive verbs require the same case 
after them as before them, when both words refer to 
the same person or thing. 

• 
Exercises, 

Thou art the man. I know him to be an honest man. 
The boys are good scholars. The name of my dog" is Fido. 
Anna has been a good girl. Milton was a great poet. 

My Cousin William has come. 

What is the subject of this sentence? 

The predicate ? 

Parse the subject and predicate. 

What part of speech is " William " ? 

Of what gender, person, and number? 

What personal pronoun may be used instead of 
"William"? 

In what case, then, is '• William " ? 

Does u William " mean the same person as 
tw cousin " in this sentence ? Yes. 

How does the noun u William " affect the mean- 
ing of the sentence? It is used to explain ivhat 
cousin is meant. 

What is the rule with regard to nouns used in this 



72 



relation ? A noun used to explain or limit another 
noun is in the same case. 
Parse fc 'my." 

Exercises. 

Paul, the apostle, wrote several epistles. 
Howard, the philanthropist, visited the prisoners. 
William has sold his dog, Fido. 



James, come to me. 

What is the subject of this sentence? " Thou," 
or " you." 

What is the predicate? " Come." 

Is " you " expressed? No; it is understood to 
belong here. 

Parse the predicate. "Come" is a verb, irreg- 
ular, intransitive, imperative mode, present tense, 
second person, and singular number, to agree with 
its subject, ^ you," referring to James. 

What part of speech is k ' James "? 

Person? Why? Number? Why? 

In what case is a noun which is the name of the 
person spoken to? Nominative. 

In what case, then, is " James"? 

What is the rule applicable to such words? A 
noun which is the name of a person spoken to is in 
the nominative case, and is used independently. 

What do you mean by its being used indepen- 
dently? That it is used without a predicate. 



73 



Exercises. 

Friends, we have lived too long. 

Sir, I must believe } T ou. 

Mr. Speaker, I rise to a point of order. 



Poor man ! I pity him. 

Parse the subject and predicate. . 

Parse " him." 

What part of speech is " man " ? 

Gender? Person? Number? 

Would the sentence be complete without the use 
of the noun " man " ? Yes. 

Is the noun " man " connected with the other 
words in the sentence? 'Tis not. 

In what case is a noun which has no grammatical 
relation to other words in a sentence? Nominative. 

In what case, then, is " man " ? Nominative, and 
used independently, or without a subject. 

What is the phrase u poor man" used for? It is 
used instead of an interjection, to imply the emotion 
of pity. 

What is the rule in regard to the case of nouns 
not connected with other words ? A noun which has 
ho grammatical relation to other words in the sentence 
is used independently in the nominative case. 

Exercises. 

Harry, he had long suspected this trespass. 
Poor Indians ! where are they now ? 



74 



The school having closed, the boys went away. 

What is the subject? ik Boys." 

Parse it. Parse the predicate. 

What part of speech is " school"? 

What person? Number? Gender? 

What part of speech is "having closed"? A 
compound perfect participle. 

How is it used? As an adjective. 

What does it limit? " School." 

Is it asserted that the school had closed? 'Tis 
not. 

Is anything asserted of the noun u school"? 
There is not. 

In what case is a noun joined with a participle, 
and having no grammatical relation to the rest of 
the sentence? Nominative, and used independently. 

What rule may be made in reference to the case 
of such nouns? A noun joined with a participle, 
and not connected with the rest of the sentence, is used 
independently in the nominative case. 

Exercises. 

The war being ended, the army returned. 

The boys having recited, the teacher dismissed them. 

Daniel being tired of play, his father sent him to bed. 

Henry has gone to Boston to obtain a situation. 

Parse the subject. The predicate. v 

What phrase shows where " Henry has gone "? 



75 



What indicates his purpose in going ? 

With what word does •' to " connect ct Boston " ? 

With what does i; to" connect " obtain "? It 
connects " obtain " with " has gone." 

What part of speech is 4 - obtain "? A verb. 

Why? Because it may be used to assert or 
affirm. 

Is it so used here? It is not. 

Is " obtain " regular, or irregular? 

Transitive, or intransitive? 

Has it a subject? Xo. 

What mode is it? Infinitive. 

Why ? Because it is used without a subject. 

What tense ? 

How do you tell the person and number of a verb? 
By its subject. 

Can the infinitive mode have any person and 
number? No. 

Why ? Because it has no subject. 

What word is commonly placed before a verb in 
the infinitive mode? The preposition " to." 

What is the rule with regard to the infinitive 
mode? A verb following the preposition u to," and 
used without a subject, is in the infinitive mode. 



Examples. 

Soldiers enlist to fight. Boys love to play. 

We wish pupils to learn their lessons. 

Anna wishes to please her mother. 

William wrote to inform his parents of his health. 



76 



Alas! I fear for life. 

Parse the subject and predicate. 

What part of speech is " for " ? 

What does it connect ? 

Parse " life." 

What part of speech is " alas " ? Why ? 

Would it affect the construction of the sentence to 
omit " alas "? It would not. 

What is the meaning of " interjection " ? It 
means thrown in. 

For what purpose are interjections used ? To 
imply emotion or feeling. 

Are interjections grammatically connected with 
the words of a sentence ? They are not. 

Make this statement or rule in general terms. 
The interjection has no grammatical connection with 
other words. 

Exercises. 

Lo, how impatiently the proud ship tosses ! 
Alas ! the remedy came too late. 
Humph ! I guess at it. 

James can read, and John can write. 

How many complete ideas are expressed above? 
Two. 

How many sentences, then, does it contain? 
Two. 



// 



What word connects the two sentences ? 

What part of speech is " and " ? Why ? 

What may conjunctions connect? Conjunctions 
connect sentences, and save the repetition of what is 
alike in each. 

Exercises. 

Washington was a great man, and Washington was a good man. 
Henry has been to England, and William has been to France. 
Horace will study if his father desires it. 

They studied steadily and faithfully. 
Charles saw Jonas and David. 
The gentleman or lady will be there. 
Bonaparte was a great man, but not good. 



/ have seen the man ivho bought our horse. 

How many assertions are made in this example ? 
Two. 

How many sentences does it contain? Two. 

What word connects them? " Who." 

What part of speech is "who"? A relative 
pronoun. 

What noun does it represent? The noun " man." 

Of what person, number, and gender is u man "? 

What, then, is the person, number, and gender of 
"who"? 

Is a pronoun always of the same person, number, 
and gender as the noun for which it stands? Yes. 

Make a general statement of this fact. Pronouns 



78 



must be of the same person, number, and gender as 
the nouns which they represent. 

In what case is " who " ? Why? 

If we use the personal pronoun " he " in place of 
"who," what word will be required to connect the 
sentences? The conjunction and. 

What purpose do relative pronouns serve, then, 
besides representing a noun ? Relative pronouns 
connect sentences. 

Exercises. 

Charles has the knife which was found yesterday. 
Here is the man whom I saw at the market. 
This is the boy whose sled I borrowed. 
Where is the ball that you found ? 

The boys received presents when the term closed. 

How many assertions are here made ? Two. 

How many sentences does it contain? Two. 

What is the first sentence? " The boys received 
presents." 

What is the second sentence? " The term 
closed." 

What word connects the sentences? " When." 

What other purpose is u when" used for? To 
show that the two events occurred at the same time. 

What are adverbs called which connect sentences? 
Connective adverbs. 

How are connective adverbs used? Connective 
adverbs connect sentences and limit verbs. 




79 



Exercises. . 

James walked till he was fatigued. 

1 left the boy where I found him. 

We met the gentleman when he arrived. 

After Charles found his book, he soon got his lesson. 

While the boys have their recess, the windows of the school- 
room should be open. 

I know not when he performed his task. 

Can you tell me where I must put my coat ? 

Whenever you have leisure, you may go for the book. 

Wherever we go, we should behave well. 

When George returns from Xew York, he will probably go to 
Portland. 

Make hay while the sun shines. 



Compound Words. 

1" did it. 

I myself did it. 

I did it myself. 

Do these three sentences express the same idea? 

What, then, is the use of the word "myself" 
in the second sentence ? It merely strengthens the 
assertion. 

How is the word " myself " formed? By adding 
44 self " to the personal pronoun " my." 

What is it called? A compound personal pro- 
noun. 



80 



The boy injured himself. 

Parse the subject and predicate. 

What part of speech is "himself"? A com- 
pound personal pronoun. 

Of what gender, person, and number is it? 

In what case ? Objective. 

Why ? Because it follows the transitive verb 
" injured." 

Would this sentence be complete without " him- 
self " ? It would not. 



TABLE OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



First person. 
Second person. 

{masculine, 
feminine, 
neuter. 



Singular. 
Myself, 

Yourself, or thyself, 
Himself, - 
Herself, 
Itself, 



Plural. 
Ourselves; 
yourselves ; 

themselves. 



The man spent that tvhich he earned. 

What word may be used in this sentence to sup- 
ply the place of the tivo words " that which"? The 
word "what;" thus, "The man spent what he 
earned." 

What are such words called which supply the 
place of two words? Compound relative pronouns. 

Why? Because they are used in place of a rela- 
tive pronoun and the word it represents. 



81 



What word does "that"' represent in the above 
example? It represents " amounf" or " money." 

In how many ways may this sentence be written 
so as to convey the same idea ? 

The man spent the amount which he earned. 

The man spent the money which he earned. 

The man spent that which he earned. 

The man spent ivhat he earned. 

What are the compound relative pronouns? 
Whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, w T hat, whatever, 
whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever. 



Who spoke to you f William. 

What is the subject of this sentence? " Who." 

For what purpose is it here used? To ask a 
question. 

What does it represent? The name of the person 
concerning whom the question is asked. 

What other words maybe used in this manner? 
Which and what. 

What are these pronouns called when they are 
used to ask questions? Interrogative pronouns. 

What, then, is an interrogative pronoun? An 
interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which is used to 
ask a question. 

What are the interrogative pronouns? Who, 
whose, whom, which, what. 



82 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive, Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 



Rules. 



The statements of facts, and inferences previously 
illustrated and deduced, are here collected as Rules 
for reference. 

Rule I. — The subject of a verb must be in the 
nominative case ; as, the boy learns. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 
It is pleasant to see the sun. 

Do these two sentences express the same idea ? 

What is the subject of the second sentence? 

What is said to be p>leasant in the first sentence? 
"To see the sun." 

By what is the phrase "to see the sun" repre- 
sented in the second sentence? By the pronoun 
"It." 

What, then, is the subject in the first sentence? 
The phrase, " to see the sun." 

To what does the adjective "pleasant," in the 
second sentence, refer? To the pronoun " it." 

Then to what does the same adjective in the first 



83 



sentence refer? To the phrase. " to see the sun," 
which ct it" represents. 

Rule II. — Adjectives describe or limit nouns; 
as, a good man, good men, one cow, three cows, this 
boy, these boys. 

Rule III. — A verb must agree with its subject 
in number and person; as, the boy runs, the boys 
run. 

Thomas and William (they) run. 

Is it asserted in this sentence that one runs, or 
more than one ? 

Of what number, then, is the verb? Plural. 

The father of his country, and the first president 
of the United States, ivas greatly beloved. 

Is this assertion made of one or more than one ? 
Of what number then, is the verb? Singular. 

John or Henry sjieaks. 

Is it asserted in this example that one speaks, or 
more than one ? 

Of what number, then, is the verb u speaks"? 
Singular. 

Rule IV. — Adverbs describe or limit verbs, 
adjectives, and adverbs ; as, Johu reads correctly. 



84 



The boy behaves very ivell, in general. 
The boy behaves very loell, generally. 

Do these two sentences mean the same thing? 

How is the phrase u in general" changed in the 
second sentence? Into the adverb " generally." 

What, then, may the phrase u in general" be 
called? An adverbial phrase. 

What other phrases are used in the same way? 
" Tn fine," " by and by," " in vain," etc. 

Will you go to the city? Yes. 
Will you return ? No. 

What does the adverb "yes" mean in the first 
sentence? It means, u I will go the city." 

What does the adverb " no " mean in the second? 
It means, "I will not return." 

Do these words describe or limit a particular 
word? They do not. 

What is the adverb " yes " called? An adverb of 
affirmation. 

What is the adverb " no " called ? An adverb of 
negation. 

Rule V. — Prepositions require the objective case 
after them ; as, John gave the book to me. 

Note. — The preposition is sometimes omitted, but must be sup- 
plied in parsing ; as, " Give me the book ; " parsed thus, " Give the 
book to me." 






85 



In what case is the persona^ pronoun "me"? 
Objective. 

Why? Because it follows the preposition "to." 

Rule VI. — Transitive verbs require the objective 
case after them ; as, Charles saw the man and heard 
him. 

The boy failed in reciting his lesson. 

What part of speech is " reciting"? A present 
participle, used as a noun ; in the objective case, 
after the preposition " of." 

What verb is " reciting " derived from? "Re- 
cite." 

Is "recite" transitive, or intransitive? Transi- 
tive. 

What is he said to be "reciting" in the above 
example? " His lesson." 

In what case, then, is " lesson "? Objective. 

What, then, may be said of participles? Par- 
ticiples derived from transitive verbs require the oZ>- 
jective case after them. 



Rule VII. — A noun varied to denote the owner, 
or possessor, is in the possessive case, and limits 
the word denoting the thing possessed ; as, John's 
hat ; William and Mary's reign ; the house is mine; 
the land is his. 



86 



Rule VIII. — Intransitive and passive verbs re- 
quire the same case after as before them, when both 
words refer to the same thing; as, / am he; thou 
art the man; I know him to be an honest man. 

Note. — Participles derived from intransitive verbs follow the 
same rule; as, " James, being a good scholar, received the appro- 
bation of his teacher." 

Rule IX. — A noun used to explain or limit 
another noun, and having the same meaning, is in 
the same case; as, Webster, the statesman, is dead; 
James, come to me, your teacher. 

Rule X. — A noun which is the name of a per- 
son spoken to is used independently, in the nomi- 
native case; as, Friends, I come not here to talk. 

Rule XI. — A noun which has no grammatical 
relation to other words in the sentence is used 
independently in the nominative case ; as, Poor 
Indians ! where are they now ? 

Note. — The pronoun " me" is sometimes used independently; 
as, Ah me / 

Rule XII. — A noun joined with a participle, and 
not connected with the rest of the sentence, is used 
independently in the nominative case ; as, Henry 
being injured, a surgeon was called. 






87 



Rule XCLL — The interjectiqn has no grammati- 
cal relation to other words ; as, Alas ! I fear he is 
ruined. 

Rule XIV. — A verb used without a subject, and 
following the preposition 4i to," is in the infinitive 
mode ; as, the boy likes to read; he bid me do it, 
i.e., he told me to do it; you dare not do it, i.e., 
you fear to do it; let me do it, i.e., permit me to 
do it. 

Note. — When a verb in the infinitive mode follows bid, dare, let, 
hear, feel, make, see, need, and a few other verbs, the preposition 
11 to" is omitted. 

Rule XV. — Conjunctions connect sentences, and 
save the repetition of what is alike in each ; as, 
William and James went to Boston ; or, William 
went to Boston, James went to Boston. 

Rule XVI. — Prepositions connect words; as, 
George tvent to London. 



Rule XVII. — Pronouns must be of the same 
person, number, and gender as the nouns which they 
represent ; as, Henry recited to his teacher ; Anna 
recited to her teacher ; Henry and Anna recited to 
their teacher. 



88 



Rule XVIII. — Relative pronouns connect 
clauses ; as, I have seen the man ivho bought our 
horse. 



Rule XIX. — Connective adverbs connect 
clauses ; and mark identity of time, place, or man- 
ner ; as, James will go ivhen William comes. 



APPENDIX 



ERB. 



The following verbs are irregular in the formation of one or 
more of their principal parts : 



Present. 




Past. 


Past participle 


Abide, 




abode, 


abode. 


Am, or Be, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 




arose, 


arisen. 


Bear, to 


bring forth, 


bare or bore, 


born. 


Bear, to 


uphold, 


bore, bare, 


borne. 


Beat, 




beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Begin, 




began, 


begun. 


Bend, 




bent, bended, 


bent. 


Beseech 


} 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 




bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 




bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 




bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 




bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 




blew, 


blown. 


Break, 




broke, brake, 


broken. 


Breed, 




bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 




brought, 


brought. 


Burst, 




burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 




bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 




cast, 


cast. 


Chide, 




chid, 


chidden, chid. 



90 



Present. 



Past. 



Choose, 


chose, 


Cleave, to split. 


clove, cleft, 


Cling, 


clung, 


Come, 


came, 


Cost, 


cost, 


Creep, 


crept, 


Cut, 


cut, 


Do, 


did, 


Draw, 


drew, 


Drink, 


drank, 


Drive, 


drove, 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


Fall, 


fell, 


Feed, 


fed, 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought, 


Find, 


found, 


Flee, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Get, 


got, 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grind, 


ground, 


Hear, 


heard, 


Hide, 


hid, 


Hit, 


hit, 


Hold, 


held, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


Keep, 


kept, 


Know, 


knew, 


Lade, 


laded, 


Lay, 


laid, 


Lead, 


led, 



Past participle. 

chosen. 

cloven, cleft. 

clung. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

cut. 

done. 

drawn. 

drank, drunk. 

driven. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten, forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

gotten or got. 

given. 

gone. 

ground. 

heard. 

hidden, hid. 

hit. 

held, holden. 

hurt. 

kept. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. V 

led. 






91 



Present, 


Past. 




Past participle, 


Leave, 


left, 




left. 


Lend, 


lent, 




lent. 


Let, 


let, 




let. 


Lie, to He down y 


lay, 




lain. 


Lose, 


lost, 




lost. 


Make, 


made, 




made. 


Mean, 


meant, 




meant. 


Meet, 


met, 




met. 


Pay, 


paid, 




paid. 


Put, 


put, 




put. 


Read, 


read, 




read. 


Rend, 


rent, 




rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 




rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 




rode, ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 




risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 




riven. 


Ran, 


ran, 




run. 


Say, 


said, 




said. 


See, 


saw, 




seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 




sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 




sold. 


Send, 


sent, 




sent. 


Set, 


set, 




set. 


Sit, 


sat, 




sat. 


Shake, 


shook, 




shaken. 


Shed, 


shed, 




shed. 


Show, 


showed, 


shew, 


shown, shewn. 


Shoe, 


shod, 




shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 




shot. 


Shred, 


shred, 




shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 




shut. 


Sing, 


sang, sung, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sank, sunk, 


sunk. 


Slay, 


slew, 




slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 




slept. 



92 



Present, 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


slung, slang, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, strid, 


stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Swear, 


swore, sware, 


sworn. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, tare, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


"Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. ^ 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 




93 



The following verbs are sometimes regular, and sometimes irreg- 
ular, in the formation of their principal parts : 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


bereft, bereaved. 


Blend, 


blended, 


blended, blent. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt. 


burned, burnt. 


.Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Cleave, to adhere, 


cleaved, clave, 


cleaved. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Crow, 


crowed, crew, 


crowed. 


Dare, to venture, 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, dealed, 


dealt, dealed. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 


dwelt, dwelled. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, grave. 


Hang, 


hung, hanged, 


hung, hanged. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove, 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, hewed. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, knelt, 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


Load, 


loaded, 


loaded, laden. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pen, 


penned, 


penned, pent. 


Quit, 


quitted, quit, 


quit, quitted. 


•Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, sheared. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 



94 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle . 


Spell, 


spelt, spelled, 


spelt, spelled. 


Spill, 


spilt, spilled, 


spilt, spilled. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewn, strewed. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, strowed. 


Sweat, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, swelled. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Whet, 


whetted, 


whetted, whet. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought 


Wring, 


wrung, wringed, 


wrung, wringed. 



BULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 



THE COMMA. 

Rule I. — Words, phrases, or clauses of a parenthetical 
or intermediate nature are separated from the context by 
commas; as, " To give battle was, in his judgment, to incur 
risk of defeat." 

Rule II. — A comma should be placed after the last noun 
in a series, if it is not joined to the others by a conjunction ; 
as, "Barley, oats, rye, corn, are products of the temperate 
zone." 

Rule III. — Inverted phrases should be separated from 
the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, " Of all our senses, 
sight is the most important." 

Rule IV. — In letter-headings, a comma should be placed 
after the city or town, state, and day of the month, and in 
the superscription, after each part of the address, excepting 
the state. 

THE DASH. 

Rule V. — Dashes are used : 

1. When the.parenthetical expression has not so close con- 
nection with the rest of the sentence as would be indicated 
by commas; as, "The statement may be true — I am not 
prepared to dispute it — that he is guilty." 

2. When there is a sudden break in the thought; as, " In 
the next place — but I will not discuss the matter further." 

3. After as, namely, etc., when the enumeration begins 
on the next line. 



96 



THE SEMICOLON. 
Rule VI. — A semicolon should be used : 

1. Just before such expressions and words as " for 
instance," " for example," " namely," " viz.," " i.e.," etc. ; 
as, "We have five senses; namely, sight, hearing, smell, 
taste, and feeling." 

2. When clauses are joined by a conjunction, but the 
second part is added for contrast; as, "I am very glad to 
hear of his success ; for no one deserves it more." 

THE COLON. 
Rule VII. — A colon should be used : 

1. Between figures designating hours and minutes; as, 
9 :10 a.m., 7 :45 p.m. 

2. Before an enumeration of articles or parts introduced 
by such expressions as " the following : " ; "as follows : " 

THE PERIOD. 
Rule VIII. — The period should be used in the following 
places : 

1. At the close of declarative and imperative sentences. 

2. After all abbreviations. 

3. After headings, addresses, and signatures to letters. 

THE INTERROGATION. 
Rule IX. — The interrogation is used at the close of a 
direct question. 

THE EXCLAMATION. 
Rule X. — The exclamation is used afterwords, phrases, 
or sentences expressing emotion or surprise. 

QUOTATION MARKS. 
Rule XI. — Quotation marks should enclose tijie exact 
words of another; as, Lawrence said, "Don't give up the 
ship." 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 






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